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A comprehensive review of the scientific literature taking
a new look at an old subject grown musty with age.


Comparative Anatomy
and Physiology Brought Up to Date

Are Humans Natural Frugivores/Vegetarians,
or Omnivores/Faunivores?

by Tom Billings
Copyright © 1999 by Thomas E. Billings. All rights reserved.
Contact author for permission to republish.


A detailed TABLE OF CONTENTS linked to all portions of the article can be
found at the bottom of this first page of introduction
.

An Invitation to Readers

If you are--or have ever been--involved in alternative diets or vegetarianism, you have probably heard or read claims that comparative anatomy and/or comparative physiology "proves" or (in more conservative language) "provides powerful evidence" that humans are "natural" fruitarians, vegetarians, or even omnivores. This paper will assess such claims and the evidence supporting them, but we first need to ask:

If these questions interest you, I invite you along for the ride. But first, open your mind and fasten your seat belt--the ride may be bumpier than you expect!



If your time is limited, or you have specific interests...

As this paper addresses numerous, diverse topics by necessity (some in depth), it is lengthy and this may present obstacles for some readers. Also, considerable background information must be covered before the main claims of the major comparative "proofs" of diet can be addressed.

To help navigate the numerous topics, to gain a quick bird's-eye view, or to read the paper in sections as time permits, the comprehensive Table of Contents below provides direct links to all the major sections and subsections of the paper.



T A B L E   O F   C O N T E N T S



PART 1
Brief Overview: What is the
Relevance of Comparative Anatomical
and Physiological Proofs?


PART 2
Looking at Ape Diets--Myths, Realities,
and Rationalizations


DIETARY CLASSIFICATIONS AND WORD GAMESMANSHIP


THE EVIDENCE OF APE/PRIMATE DIETS


PART 3
The Fossil Record Evidence
about Human Diet


PART 4
Intelligence, Evolution of the
Human Brain, and Diet


PART 5
Limitations on Comparative
Dietary Proofs


PART 6
What Comparative Anatomy Does
and Doesn't Tell Us about Human Diet